Received: 26 November 2008 / Accepted: 17 June 2009
! Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract The sand dune habitats found on barrier islands and other coastal areas support a dynamic plant community while protecting areas further inland from waves and wind. Foredune, interdune, and backdune habitats common to most coastal dunes have very different vegetation, likely because of the interplay among plant succession, exposure, distur- bance, and resource availability. However, surpris- ingly few long-term data are available describing dune vegetation patterns. A nine-year census of 294 plots on St. George Island, Florida suggests that the major climatic drivers of vegetation patterns vary with habitat. Community structure is correlated with the elevation, soil moisture, and percent soil ash of each 1 m2 plot. Major storms reduce species richness in all three habitats. Principle coordinate analysis suggests that changes in the plant communities through time are caused by climatic events: changes in foredune vegetation are correlated with tempera- ture and summer precipitation, interdune vegetation with storm surge, and backdune vegetation with
precipitation and storm surge. We suggest that the plant communities in foredune, interdune, and
T. E. Miller (&) ! E. S. Gornish
Department of Biological Science, Florida State
University, Tallahassee, FL 32304-4295, USA
e-mail: miller@bio.fsu.edu
H. L. Buckley
Lincoln University, Canterbury 7647, New Zealand e-mail: Hannah.Buckley@lincoln.ac.nz
backdune habitats tend to undergo succession toward particular compositions of species, with climatic disturbances pushing the communities away from these more deterministic trajectories.
Keywords Dune habitats ! Succession ! Disturbance ! Coastal vegetation ! Hurricane ! Tropical storm
Introduction
Sand beaches, dunes, and swales create a common set of coastal formations found worldwide (e.g., Labuz and Grunewald 2007; da Silva et al. 2008; Forey et al.
2008; Judd et al. 2008). Sandy coasts, especially on
barrier islands, are particularly dynamic environ- ments because of interactions among geology, cli- mate, and vegetation (Ehrenfeld 1990; Stallins and Parker 2003). A typical barrier island is composed of a series of dunes, the newest and largest of which, the foredunes, are created on the more exposed ocean side where sediments are deposited. Interdune areas behind the foredunes are lower and more level because of overwash and flooding from storms. Backdune areas include both dunes and swales in older, less disturbed areas, which are often slowly eroding into the back, or bay, side of the island.
The factors that control dune formation are often attributed to two sets of forces: the relatively constant
actions of wind and waves (e.g., Hayes 1979; da Silva et al. 2008), and disturbance from rare but intense storms (Masetti et al. 2008; Houser et al. 2008). Normal wave and wind action generally act to build foredunes slowly, ultimately producing regular dunes and swales. Less frequent but intense storms, with heavy rainfall and overwash, tend to break down dunes and cause sediment deposition over interdune areas. Both of these habitats tend to protect the backdune areas from major damage. A third factor that also controls dunes is time; new dunes are formed on the ocean sides of islands, then gradually move inland as they become older and lower, generally over a relatively long time-scale (100–
1,000 years; Hayden et al. 1991)
The vegetation on dunes and the dune and swale geomorphology interact reciprocally, as plants stabi- lize and promote their own preferred environmental conditions. At least three important groups of dune plants have been described: dune builders, burial- tolerant stabilizers, and burial intolerant stabilizers (see Ehrenfeld 1990; Stallins 2005). Dune builders grow upward rapidly after burial, and their stems and roots help to stabilize growing foredunes. Burial- tolerant stabilizers must withstand overwash and flooding and have a lattice network of rhizomes that stabilize low-lying areas affected by storm surge and heavy rain. Finally, burial-intolerant stabilizers are generally longer-lived species that are found in stable dunes and swales in more protected inland areas.
The feedback between vegetation and dunes has been hypothesized to result in the characteristic vegetation found in different dune habitats—the vegetation and morphology are predicted to converge toward particular species assemblages (stability domains; Stallins 2005) appropriate for each habitat (Ehrenfeld 1990). Of course, since the dunes them- selves are aging, these assemblages can be viewed as short-term stable points or points along a more continuous longer-term successional trajectory. In particular, a suite of dune-builder plants may estab- lish on new foredunes, promoting high dunes that reduce the effects of wind and waves associated with storms. In interdune areas, burial-tolerant plants may stabilize sediments and contribute to a flat topogra- phy that promotes or allows further overwash or flooding by heavy rain. Finally, the more stable backdune areas accumulate the highest diversity through time and may reflect a longer sere, from
initial dune stabilizing species to more burial intol- erant species, and ultimately to woody shrubs and trees.
In this view, feedback between vegetation and geomorphology is the mechanism promoting differ- ent vegetation assemblages on foredunes, interdunes, and backdunes. Disturbances such as severe storms push the communities away from these assemblages; short-term succession returns dunes to their previous vegetation patterns. On a longer-time scale, the geomorphology of the dunes also changes with age resulting in a longer-term succession trajectory.
Surprisingly, there are few available data on vegetation patterns through time to study the dynamic pattern between disturbance and short-term succes- sion for dune environments (see Day et al. 2001; Martinez et al. 2001; Snyder and Boss 2002). Studies of vegetation and climate through time can document the effects of disturbance by storms and other climate factors, while providing evidence for feedback mechanisms, the relative stability of different dune habitats, and the convergence of vegetation following disturbance. Here, we present the first results from a
9-year study of the vegetation of St. George Island, Florida, USA.
Materials and methods
Study site
St. George Island in north Florida is the largest of four islands fronting Apalachicola Bay. It is a typical wave-dominated microtidal barrier island (Hayes
1994) with a single fronting line of foredunes, an
interdune area of overwashed flats, and a low ridge- and-swale topography in the backdunes. Geologi- cally, it is a typical Holocene barrier island with 5–
10 m of fine quartz sand over a thin Pleistocene layer of sandy-silt, silt, or clay.
The study area is in St. George Island State Park
on a dune and beach ridge plain that has been forming on an active spit platform. Although St. George Island probably began forming about 4,000 years ago or later (Donoghue and Tanner 1992; Donoghue and White 1995), the study site on the growing eastern tip of the island is certainly much younger. Repeated beach profile surveys by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection over the past 30? years
indicate that the shoreline at our site is prograding at an average rate of 5.5 m/year (Foster and Cheng
2001).
Field methods
We established permanent locations in 1999 where we have since monitored the vegetation annually (no data were collected in 2002). Six large grids (60 m 9 60 m), each consisting of a 7 9 7 array of
1-m2 plots, 10 m apart, were marked out with large
wooden stakes, for a total of 49 censused plots per grid. Two grids were placed across foredunes, two in the interdune area, and two across ridges and swales in the backdunes, for a total of 294 plots. In the fall of each year (late October or early November), a 1-m2 quadrat is placed over each plot, and all vegetation within it is censused. Different measures of abun- dance are used for plants with different growth forms (discrete individuals, number of individuals; clonal plants, number of ramets; bunch grasses, number of clumps; rhizomatous grasses, percentage cover); in this article, the analyses were conducted on presence/ absence of each species in each 1-m2 plot.
Data on several environmental variables associ- ated with each plot were also collected. We deter- mined soil moisture gravimetrically in 2001 by collecting a 2-cm diameter 9 15-cm column of sand from a corner of each plot. Each sample was placed in an airtight bag in the field and later weighed, dried at 60"C, and reweighed. We determined percent ash using the same dried samples by reweighing the samples after they were heated in a combustion furnace. The elevation of each plot relative to mean sea level was determined in 2007 with a TopCon Total Station (Topcon Positioning Systems, Liver- more, CA).
Analyses
Patterns through time for individual species were quantified as average species occurrences in plots within grids in each year (n = 2) in each of the foredune, interdune, and backdune habitats. Species richness was also determined as a function of time and habitat. Communities were initially described in terms of the rank-abundance patterns within each habitat, as determined from the presence and absence data for each plot within the habitat.
To quantify differences in community composition across the grids and through time, we created a distance matrix among plots using the Steinhaus similarity coefficient, then used principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) as an exploratory ordination tool (LabDSV package in R version 2.8; http://www.r- project.org). To reduce the influenc
đang được dịch, vui lòng đợi..